Hindustani and the Hindi-Urdu Divide

Hindi in some places, Urdu in others, ‘Hindustani,’ from where the two emerged, exists undoubtedly as the lingua franca in most of South Asia. Although home to thousands of languages, Hindustani is showcased as the defining language to the outside world. Manifesting most evidently as Hindi and Urdu, it also encompasses a plethora of localized dialects. The languages have a deep history among themselves, sharing a cultural connection in both their speakers and structure but were also fraught with socio-political tensions in their uses and perceptions.

Roots

Hindustani originated after the arrival of the Muslim dynasties in the 13th century, to facilitate communication between themselves and the speakers of the Khari Bholi dialect of Apabhramsa language (itself considered a dialect of present-day Hindi). Its basic structure, grammar and vocabulary was borrowed from Khari Bholi, but consisted of a number of Persian Arabic words and phrases as well. Since Persian came with the rulers, most of the phrases it provided were related to that of administration. It received greater recognition due to its use in poetry by a number of poets, most notably Amir Khusrau, as well as Sufi saints and poets from the Natha tradition (a movement involving aspects of Buddhism, Shaivism and Hatha Yoga). This evolution was attributed as a result of the rise of Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb, a syncretic fusion of both Hindu and Muslim cultures.

It is important to note that this concept of Hindustani was recognized definitely after the arrival of the British, although the term has been mentioned sparsely Persian court texts. ‘Hindustani’ in and of itself was not recognized as such by the people. The two were regarded as one, and were given terms differing on context; ‘Hindi’ when considered as the language of India, ‘zaban-e-dehlavi’ or the language of Delhi, ‘Gujri’ in Gujarat and ‘Dakkani’ in the Deccan to name a few. In fact, the word Urdu itself was initially used as an alternate word to denote Delhi as well as the royal city chosen by Akbar. The reference of Urdu to language came about towards the 18th century, with the cognizance of Hindi and Urdu being recognized as separate entities.

Hindustani might share similarities in common parlance, but there existed a wide chasm between Hindi and Urdu, semantically and culturally. In speech, the differences were insignificant, in the use of Arabic plurals in Urdu, and Sanskrit suffixes in Hindi. The foremost of the differences was their script; while Hindi relied on its predecessor, Devanagari, Urdu adopted the Perso-Arabic script imported by the Muslim rulers. The scripts differ in their underlying principles as well. Nagari emphasizes vowels and consonants equally, whereas the Perso-Arabic Urdu places importance on only the consonants. In use too, they differed as Urdu predated Hindi in both literature and administration.

Difference in Language, Difference in Identity

The cultural sentiments associated with language came up in sporadic instances initially. The 19th century was however seen as the turning point for this sentiment. For example, a survey taken by the government showed the affinity of upper-caste Hindus to study in Hindi-medium school, whereas a large majority of Muslims were educated in Persian schools. Another example of strengthening sentiment was in 1868, when a memorandum was published arguing Hindi’s use prior to the Muslim arrival and claiming that complying with Persian and Urdu was a subjugation of Hindu culture and identity. The controversies flared up infrequently, but mostly lay dormant.

As language policy in education and employment became more defined, it was accompanied by a rise in linguistic identity. Soon the Hindi-Urdu identity started manifesting more clearly. The defining point of this can be said to be the 1900 introduction of Nagari script in the United Provinces. In 1898, a group of Hindus put forward a demand to recognize Hindi in the Devanagari script as one of the official languages of the courts in the United Provinces. Although initially ignored, this demand was suddenly accepted in 1900, and Urdu and Hindi became joint official languages. This move was taken fearing the effects of Hindu-Muslim unity with a memory of the 1857 Revolt. The rift it caused came to stay; Muslims now felt that their positions in public government were threatened. Various meetings were held for the defense of Urdu, claiming different effects due to the introduction of Nagari in government; fear that it would completely erase Urdu, and cause Muslim students to become Hindu in thought and expression.

Supporters of Urdu put out greater critiques of Hindi; Urdu’s status in courts had lowered the prestige of Hindi. Some claimed it was old and dead, others calling it a vulgar language whose speakers could not be seen as educated. The Nagari Pracharini Sabha, an association for the revival of Hindi, tried to counter these assertions and emphasized Hindi’s antiquity and literature, although it had to appeal to the varied dialects that existed much before Hindi’s current form.

Educational and scholarly texts began being published in sharply differing Sanskritized Hindi and Persianized Urdu. Since employment opportunities were monopolized by the Kayasth community and educated Muslims, the vernacularization by bifurcation meant that competition along linguistic and communal lines were bound to take place.

During the 19th century, print journalism began to be established in the United Provinces, with many of them initially sharing both Hindi and Urdu columns. Later, with the advent of Hindi journalism, greater sentiment began being attributed to the use of Devanagari through organizations such as Hindi Sahitya Sammelan and Nagari Pracharini Sabha. The wealthy Hindu classes began donating towards causes propagating Hindi, and gurukuls were set up in an attempt to revive ‘Aryabhasha’ or noble language. A linguistic survey carried out by the government traced the various different languages in India to either Hindi or Perso-Arabic Urdu. The Hindi Sahitya Samellan and Allahabad University claimed that Hindi was the mother of all these dialects, strengthening the way for Hindi to emerge as the dominant language of North India. A reactionary effect was the subsequent attempt to purify Urdu and incorporate more Persian and Arabic vocabulary. Language now had a new dimension - an inseparable link to status and identity.

-

While the language politics surrounding Hindi and Urdu were not brought into the fray of mainstream politics, their underlying effects in shaping the identity of North-West South Asia cannot go unnoticed. Languages now exist more than just tools for expressing thought; they express a cultural link to both individuals and communities, strengthening a greater ethno-linguistic nationalist identity in people from North-West South Asia.

Sources

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Hindustani Language | Origins & Vocabulary.” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/Hindustani-language.

2. Matthews, David J. “Urdu Language and Education in India.” Social Scientist, vol. 31, no. 5/6, 2003, pp. 60

3. King, Christopher. “THE HINDI-URDU CONTROVERSY OF THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES AND OUDH AND COMMUNAL CONSCIOUSNESS.” Journal of South Asian Literature, vol. 13, no. 1/4, 1977, pp. 111–120.

4. Pai, Sudha. “Politics of Language: Decline of Urdu in Uttar Pradesh.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 37, no. 27, 2002, pp. 2705–2708.

5. Rai, Alok. “The Persistence of Hindustani.” India International Centre Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 3/4, 2002, pp. 70–79.